Willing but Unequipped: Structural Barriers and Professional Development Needs in Higher-Order Thinking Assessment Design among Secondary Science and Mathematics Teachers in Tanzania

Source abstract

Tanzania's transition to competence-based education requires classroom assessment in science and mathematics to engage students in higher-order thinking (HOT), including analysing, evaluating, and creating, rather than merely recalling content. However, evidence remains limited on the factors shaping the gap between policy expectations and teachers' assessment practices, variations across subjects, and the support teachers require. This paper reports findings from a convergent parallel mixed-methods cross-sectional survey of 526 secondary school teachers of Biology (n = 151), Chemistry (n = 106), Mathematics (n = 169), and Physics (n = 100) in Lindi, Mtwara, and Njombe Regions, Tanzania, conducted between March and July 2025. Teachers' reported challenges in designing HOT assessment items and their support needs were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests of independence, binary logistic regression, and hybrid deductive-inductive content analysis of open-ended responses. Limited resources emerged as the leading barrier (57.4%), followed by lack of skills (38.8%), time constraints (34.8%), and curriculum restrictions (15.4%), with teachers reporting an average of 1.52 barriers. Barriers varied significantly across subjects. Mathematics teachers reported the highest number of concurrent barriers, while resource shortages were particularly severe in Physics and Mathematics, and curriculum restrictions were most pronounced in Mathematics. Teaching experience significantly influenced reported skills gaps: teachers with 21 or more years of experience reported the highest proportion of skills gaps (54.7%). Logistic regression confirmed that this association was independent of subject (OR = 2.54, 95% CI [1.36, 4.74]). Effect-size estimates indicated that the statistically significant associations were small to modest, with Cramer's V ranging from 0.13 to 0.20 across the significant chi-square results. The leading support needs were teaching and learning materials, in-service training, and ICT infrastructure, with priorities varying by subject. The findings indicate that teachers are willing to develop HOT assessments but face structural constraints that limit consistent implementation, particularly in examination-oriented subjects and among experienced teachers lacking assessment training. The results should be interpreted as evidence of perceived structural constraints rather than direct observation of actual assessment quality, because the study did not analyse teachers' assessment artefacts or classroom practice. Therefore, subject-specific, experience-responsive in-service training, targeted resource investment, and ICT provision are recommended.